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I disagree slightly on vacancy being the main stress point. Using eleven months already provides some allowance, while turnover can create several costs at once: lost rent, management or letting expense, cleaning and repairs. Financing is another sensitivity—if there is debt, test the cash flow...

For annual costs, separate government property charges from association or development dues, insurance, utilities, and maintenance. A duplex may or may not have shared services, so ask for the actual billing arrangements rather than assuming. I’d also request confirmation of any arrears and the...

The evidence is thin enough that a percentage adjustment may create false precision. The property is a three-bedroom Seoul apartment of about 115 m², in average condition and listed for ₩959,100,000. Its light and location are attractive, while the dated interior and possible service-charge...

The appraisal gap deserves its own limit. Work out how much cash, if any, you would add if the valuation comes in below the contract price. Don’t promise to cover an unlimited gap merely to make the initial offer look stronger.